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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Partialladung</span></h1>
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<p>Unter <b>Partialladung</b> (lat. <i>pars</i> „Teil“, daher auch <b>Teilladung</b>), auch <b>partielle Ladung</b>, versteht man die unterschiedliche Ladung zweier Bindungspartner (<a href="Atom" title="Atom">Atome</a> oder <a href="Molek%C3%BCl" title="Molekül">Molekülteile</a>). Sie treten durch <a href="Polare_Atombindung" title="Polare Atombindung">polare Atombindungen</a> auf.<sup id="cite_ref-Gärtner_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gärtner-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die Ladungen werden in chemischen Formeln mit δ− und δ+ oberhalb des Elementsymbols gekennzeichnet.<sup id="cite_ref-Gärtner_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gärtner-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Unterscheiden sich die Bindungspartner einer <a href="Atombindung" class="mw-redirect" title="Atombindung">Atombindung</a> in ihrer <a href="Elektronegativit%C3%A4t" title="Elektronegativität">Elektronegativität</a>, so ist die Verteilung der Bindungselektronen nicht mehr gleichmäßig, sondern es kommt zu einer <a href="Polarit%C3%A4t_(Chemie)" title="Polarität (Chemie)">Polarisation</a> (unterschiedliche <a href="Elektrische_Ladung" title="Elektrische Ladung">Ladung</a> der Partner), die durch die Verschiebung der Ladungsträger (<a href="Elektron" title="Elektron">Elektronen</a>) hervorgerufen wird. Diese Elektronenverschiebung bewirkt, dass die Bindungspartner teilweise (= partiell) positiv und negativ geladen sind.<sup id="cite_ref-Gärtner_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gärtner-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Die Partialladung in einer XY-Bindung kann mit folgender Formel abgeschätzt werden:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{X}=G_{X}-N_{X}-B_{X}\cdot {\frac {\chi _{X}}{\chi _{X}+\chi _{Y}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>S</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>X</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mi>G</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>X</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>N</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>X</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>B</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>X</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<msub>
<mi>χ<!-- χ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>X</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mrow>
<msub>
<mi>χ<!-- χ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>X</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>+</mo>
<msub>
<mi>χ<!-- χ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>Y</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{X}=G_{X}-N_{X}-B_{X}\cdot {\frac {\chi _{X}}{\chi _{X}+\chi _{Y}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2d120a8445271972f54286dda858e2c7b7a561d5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:33.575ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{X}=G_{X}-N_{X}-B_{X}\cdot {\frac {\chi _{X}}{\chi _{X}+\chi _{Y}}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Dabei steht <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G_{X}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>G</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>X</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G_{X}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8f059cffb25d6f609ffca5418041a9b378d849e7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.459ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G_{X}}" loading="lazy"></span> für die Gruppennummer des Elements <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>X</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/68baa052181f707c662844a465bfeeb135e82bab.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X}" loading="lazy"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle N_{X}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>N</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>X</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle N_{X}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/dd2a99b07e261c2219a44ef2cce0fc102547c1eb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.499ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle N_{X}}" loading="lazy"></span> ist die Anzahl der nicht an der Bindung beteiligten Elektronen vom Atom <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>X</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/68baa052181f707c662844a465bfeeb135e82bab.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X}" loading="lazy"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B_{X}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>B</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>X</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B_{X}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f75ec173685d6bfa630275da2b6690bf9486a12a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.396ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B_{X}}" loading="lazy"></span> ist die Anzahl der Elektronen, welche an der Bindung beteiligt sind und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \chi _{X}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>χ<!-- χ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>X</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \chi _{X}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8d38cd13c20a28617b23071abaa2df4d780d0fba.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.087ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \chi _{X}}" loading="lazy"></span> bzw. <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \chi _{Y}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>χ<!-- χ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>Y</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \chi _{Y}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c208e91de6d7bc8e0c7409d502d90b659d24f816.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.941ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \chi _{Y}}" loading="lazy"></span> sind die Elektronegativitätswerte von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>X</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/68baa052181f707c662844a465bfeeb135e82bab.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X}" loading="lazy"></span> bzw. <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>Y</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:1.773ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y}" loading="lazy"></span>. So erhält man zum Beispiel für das Molekül HF: <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{F}=-0{,}355}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>S</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>F</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>0,355</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{F}=-0{,}355}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/998af66089b761d0fff4e735b53b517d1869908a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:13.091ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{F}=-0{,}355}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{H}=0{,}645}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>S</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>H</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0,645</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{H}=0{,}645}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/75e3a36774bbec144451a49746a909c21c75d279.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.511ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{H}=0{,}645}" loading="lazy"></span>, F ist also partial negativ und H partial positiv geladen.<sup id="cite_ref-clarc_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clarc-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Oder in anderen Worten: Der errechnete Wert <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S_{X}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>S</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>X</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S_{X}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8f586e8531565307eb464a30ec0917a6b7c91c26.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.057ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S_{X}}" loading="lazy"></span> steht dabei für den prozentualen Anteil der Entfernung zwischen Atomkern des Elements <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle X}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>X</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle X}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/68baa052181f707c662844a465bfeeb135e82bab.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.98ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle X}" loading="lazy"></span> und Atomkern des Elements <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>Y</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/961d67d6b454b4df2301ac571808a3538b3a6d3f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:1.773ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y}" loading="lazy"></span>. In diesem Fall ist das Elektronenpaar zwischen Fluor und Wasserstoff zu ca. 64,5 % vom Wasserstoff- und zu 35,5 % vom Fluor-Atom entfernt. Somit ist das Elektronenpaar näher am Fluor-Atom, weswegen es eine negative Partialladung <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \delta ^{-}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \delta ^{-}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6344653843bf8829ed910ed38aa19ee3d91e18ca.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.564ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \delta ^{-}}" loading="lazy"></span> erhält.
</p><p>Dabei muss gelten: <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |S_{X}|+|S_{Y}|=k\cdot 100\%=1\cdot k}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mi>S</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>X</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/adb3486c6206813b98d8ebc16391c4a59d9717b8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:29.959ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |S_{X}|+|S_{Y}|=k\cdot 100\%=1\cdot k}" loading="lazy"></span> mit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k=1,2,3,\dots }">
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</p><p>Je größer die <a href="Elektronegativit%C3%A4tsdifferenz" title="Elektronegativitätsdifferenz">Elektronegativitätsdifferenz</a> (ΔEN) ist, desto größer wird der Grad der Polarisation und damit die Ausbildung der Partialladungen. Da zwischen unterschiedlichen Ladungen Bindungskräfte entstehen, werden diese umso größer, je größer der Ladungsunterschied ist. Ab einer bestimmten Größe der Differenz spricht man von einer <a href="Ionenbindung" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionenbindung">Ionenbindung</a> und <a href="Ion" title="Ion">Ionen</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Einzelnachweise">Einzelnachweise</h2></div>
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-Gärtner-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Gärtner_1-0">a</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Gärtner_1-1">b</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Gärtner_1-2">c</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Harald Gärtner: <cite style="font-style:italic">Chemie: Formeln, Gesetze und Fachbegriffe</cite>. Compact, 2009, ISBN 978-3-8174-7892-7 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.de/books?id=usKA27uEM7gC&pg=PA178#v=onepage">Seite 178</a> in der Google-Buchsuche).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Partialladung&rft.au=Harald+G%C3%A4rtner&rft.btitle=Chemie%3A+Formeln%2C+Gesetze+und+Fachbegriffe&rft.date=2009&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=9783817478927&rft.pub=Compact" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-clarc-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-clarc_2-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">David Clark: <cite style="font-style:italic">General chemistry: pearls of wisdom</cite>. Jones & Bartlett Pub, 2004, ISBN 978-1-890369-22-4 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.de/books?id=V9GZCstIg04C&pg=PA95#v=onepage">Seite 95</a> in der Google-Buchsuche).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Partialladung&rft.au=David+Clark&rft.btitle=General+chemistry%3A+pearls+of+wisdom&rft.date=2004&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=9781890369224&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Pub" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
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